The concept of protecting species at risk of extinction has evolved significantly over the years, with various legislation and policies enacted globally to safeguard biodiversity and prevent irreversible damage to ecosystems. This essay explores the historical context of such regulatory frameworks that have been developed to protect endangered species.
The journey towards comprehensive legal protection for vulnerable species began in earnest during the 20th century, as industrialization, habitat destruction, pollution, and overhunting led to alarming declines in wildlife populations. One of the earliest pieces of legislation aimed at conservation was the Lacey Act of 1900 in the United States, which was enacted to curb illegal trafficking of wildlife.
However, it was in the post-World War II era that a more structured global approach began to take shape. The establishment of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1948 marked a significant step forward. The IUCN created a platform for governments and civil society to collaborate on conservation issues and played a crucial role in drafting key international treaties.
One such pivotal treaty is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), adopted in 1973. CITES aims to ensure that international trade does not threaten species with extinction, regulating trade through a system of permits and controls for over 35,000 species.
In parallel with international efforts, national legislations were also strengthened. The United States passed the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in 1973, one of the most comprehensive laws for protecting endangered species and their habitats. The ESA makes it unlawful to harm an endangered or threatened species or its habitat and provides mechanisms for listing species as endangered or threatened.
Europe followed suit with directives such as the Birds Directive (1979) and Habitats Directive (1992), which form the cornerstone of EU's nature conservation policy today. These directives require member states to protect natural habitats and wild species across Europe, establishing protected areas known as Natura 2000 sites.
Across other continents, similar protections were instituted. For example, Australia passed its Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act in 1999 to provide a framework for protecting Australian native plants and animals along with ecological communities.
In Africa, nations like Kenya have implemented stringent wildlife laws aimed at curbing poaching activities decimating populations like those of elephants and rhinos. South Africa's National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (2004) further exemplifies regional efforts toward biodiversity preservation.
Despite these advancements, challenges remain formidable due to factors such as enforcement issues, lack of funding, climate change impacts, invasive species introduction by human activities among others. As we move forward into the 21st century responding effectively to these threats requires not only robust legislative measures but also increased public awareness initiatives coupled with stronger international cooperation.
Thus while significant strides have been made since early protective measures like Lacey Act till more encompassed ones like CITES or ESA; true success will depend upon our continued commitment towards innovation within policy making incorporating new scientific insights into adaptive management strategies ensuring all life forms can sustainably coexist on planet Earth.
In the realm of environmental conservation, certain laws and international agreements stand as pillars supporting the protection of species that are threatened or endangered. Among these, the Endangered Species Act (ESA), the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and other key legislations play a crucial role.
The ESA, enacted in 1973 in the United States, is one of the most comprehensive laws for the protection of endangered species. It aims to prevent extinction, recover imperiled plants and animals, and protect the ecosystems on which they depend. The act provides a framework for listing species as endangered or threatened and mandates federal agencies to ensure that their actions do not jeopardize these species' survival. One of its most powerful tools is the ability to designate critical habitats that are crucial for the recovery of listed species.
Internationally, CITES serves a critical function by regulating cross-border trade in specimens of wild animals and plants. It ensures that such trade does not threaten their survival by requiring countries to adopt their own legislation to enforce CITES regulations at national levels. Implemented in 1975 with 183 member countries currently participating, CITES works through a system of permits that certify that international trade in listed specimens is legal and sustainable.
Both ESA and CITES highlight how domestic and international frameworks can complement each other. While ESA focuses on protecting species within the U.S., including those affected by international trade, CITES regulates global commerce involving wildlife to ensure it does not exacerbate threats like poaching and habitat loss.
These legislative tools are supported by various other international agreements aimed at conservation efforts globally. For instance, The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) established objectives similar to both ESA and CITES but includes broader goals concerning sustainable development alongside conservation.
These conventions collectively underscore an essential truth: conserving biodiversity transcends national boundaries. Challenges such as climate change, illegal wildlife trafficking, habitat degradation know no borders; thus, neither can our response.
However impressive these legislative measures may be on paper, their effectiveness hinges on rigorous implementation and adequate funding. This requires continuous effort from all stakeholders involved-from government bodies to conservation organizations and local communities.
In conclusion, while laws like ESA and agreements such as CITES represent significant strides toward safeguarding our planet's biodiversity, they must be part of an integrated approach that includes education about biodiversity importance, promotion of sustainable practices at both local and global levels, effective law enforcement presence worldwide to combat wildlife crime, along with scientific research for understanding ecological impacts better.
The term "implementation of regulations" regarding protected species is a critical aspect of environmental conservation. It involves the various methods and strategies employed by governments and organizations to enforce laws designed to protect endangered and threatened species from extinction. These regulations are often complex, requiring coordinated efforts across multiple levels of government and collaboration with private organizations, communities, and international bodies.
One of the primary methods for implementing these regulations is through monitoring. Monitoring involves regular observation and recording of the status of species and their habitats. This can be done through field surveys, satellite imagery, or tracking technologies that provide data on population sizes, health, and migration patterns. Effective monitoring helps authorities make informed decisions about conservation strategies and allows for timely interventions if a species is found to be at increased risk.
Habitat protection forms another cornerstone of implementing regulations for protected species. Preserving the natural environments where species live is crucial to their survival. This can mean setting aside protected areas like national parks or wildlife reserves where human activities are restricted. Habitat protection also involves restoring degraded areas that are crucial for the survival of certain species. Such initiatives require strict enforcement of land use policies and often involve reforestation, wetland restoration, or the removal of invasive species that threaten native biodiversity.
Furthermore, restrictions on hunting and trade are vital in regulating human activities that directly harm protected species. Poaching remains a significant threat to many animals, particularly those whose body parts are highly valued on the black market such as elephants for ivory or rhinos for their horns. Governments enforce laws against such illegal activities by increasing surveillance and penalties, deploying anti-poaching units, and collaborating with international law enforcement agencies to dismantle smuggling networks.
Trade restrictions also play a major role in protecting species from overexploitation. International agreements like CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) regulate the cross-border commerce in specimens of listed animals and plants to ensure it does not threaten their survival in the wild. Countries implement these agreements through customs regulations, certification processes to verify legal sourcing, and sanctions against violations.
Overall, effective implementation of these regulatory measures requires strong governance structures, adequate funding for enforcement activities, public education campaigns to raise awareness about wildlife conservation issues, as well as international cooperation when dealing with transboundary environmental challenges related to protected species.
In conclusion, while crafting laws is a significant step towards conserving biodiversity; it is their vigilant implementation including diligent monitoring, habitat protection efforts alongside stringent control over hunting and trade practices that ultimately dictate success in preserving our world's precious wildlife heritage.
Protected species regulations are essential for the conservation of biodiversity and the protection of wildlife that are at risk from human activities. These regulations aim to prevent extinction, preserve natural habitats, and maintain ecological balance. However, enforcing these rules presents various significant challenges that can undermine their effectiveness.
One major obstacle in the enforcement of protected species regulations is the lack of adequate funding. Conservation programs require substantial financial resources for activities such as patrolling protected areas, conducting scientific research, and implementing recovery plans for endangered species. Without sufficient funding, these activities cannot be carried out effectively, leading to gaps in enforcement and reduced protection for vulnerable species.
Poaching remains a persistent and grave threat to protected species. Poachers often target animals for their body parts such as tusks, horns, or skins which are highly valued on the black market. Despite legal protections, the high profits involved in illegal wildlife trade motivate poachers to continue their illicit activities. Enforcing anti-poaching laws requires constant vigilance, advanced technology, and coordination between different law enforcement agencies — all of which are resource-intensive.
The illegal trade of wildlife is another critical challenge linked closely with poaching. This global black market thrives on the demand for exotic pets, traditional medicine ingredients, and luxury goods made from animal products. Curbing this demand is as crucial as fighting poaching but requires international cooperation and robust legal frameworks both domestically and internationally. Efforts must include educating consumers about the impacts of their purchases on biodiversity and increasing penalties for those involved in wildlife trafficking.
Political resistance also poses a significant barrier to the implementation of effective protected species regulations. Sometimes local or national interests may conflict with conservation goals; for instance, land that could be used for agriculture or development might be designated as a protected area to save a threatened species' habitat. In such cases, political leaders may face pressure from constituents or corporations to prioritize economic growth over environmental protection. Overcoming this resistance requires advocacy, public awareness campaigns, and demonstrating that ecological sustainability can contribute to long-term economic well-being.
In conclusion, while protected species regulations are crucial for conserving biodiversity and protecting endangered wildlife, their successful enforcement is fraught with challenges ranging from insufficient funding and rampant poaching to illegal trade and political hurdles. Addressing these issues demands a multifaceted approach involving increased financial support, international collaboration to combat wildlife trafficking, comprehensive education campaigns aimed at reducing consumer demand for illegally sourced products, and fostering political will that aligns developmental goals with conservation priorities.
Protected species regulations are designed to safeguard individual species that are recognized as endangered or threatened, generally due to human activities. These regulations form a crucial part of conservation efforts globally, aiming to mitigate the impacts of habitat loss, pollution, overhunting, and other factors contributing to the decline in biodiversity. This essay explores the effectiveness of these regulations in preserving biodiversity and reversing trends towards species extinction.
The cornerstone of protected species regulations often lies in legislation such as the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the United States, established in 1973. Similar frameworks exist internationally, including the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulates international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants. These laws typically involve listing species that are at risk, designating critical habitats, and outlining recovery plans that include restrictions on killing, capturing, or selling these organisms.
Evaluating the success of these regulations reveals a mixed picture. On one hand, there have been undeniable successes. For instance, the ESA has been instrumental in saving numerous species from extinction; notable examples include the bald eagle and the American alligator. According to reports from various wildlife agencies, over 99% of species listed under the ESA have been saved from extinction since its inception.
Moreover, protected species regulations have led to increased public awareness about environmental issues. They catalyze community involvement and foster an ethic of stewardship among citizens. Educational programs linked with these regulations inform people about the importance of biodiversity and how they can contribute to conservation efforts.
However, there are also significant challenges that undermine their effectiveness. One major issue is insufficient funding; implementing recovery plans for endangered species can be incredibly resource-intensive and often suffers from inadequate financial support. Consequently, despite being listed as protected under law, many species continue to decline due to lack of effective management and restoration efforts.
Another challenge is political resistance; economic interests frequently clash with conservation goals. Restrictions imposed by protected species regulations can limit land use for agriculture or development projects leading to conflicts between government entities charged with enforcing these laws and stakeholders pushing for economic growth.
Furthermore, global compliance varies significantly because enforcement mechanisms differ vastly across countries. In some parts of the world where biodiversity is rich but governance structures weak, poaching and illegal trade persist despite formal protections being in place.
Adaptive management strategies could enhance the efficacy of protected species laws by incorporating new scientific insights into policy adjustments promptly as ecological responses become better understood over time. Additionally integrating community-based conservation projects could improve local support for protective measures thereby enhancing compliance rates.
In conclusion while protected species regulations have had notable successes their overall impact on reversing trends towards extinction remains uneven largely due to implementation challenges Underfunded initiatives political conflicts lack robust global enforcement mechanisms all hamper their effectiveness However adaptive management approaches community engagement could potentially make these regulatory frameworks more successful ensuring sustainable preservation biodiversity future generations
In addressing the future directions of protected species regulations, it is crucial to consider the evolving landscape of policy-making that integrates emerging trends and innovations. This evolution points towards a more inclusive, technologically advanced, and community-oriented approach to conservation efforts.
Firstly, community-based conservation has gained significant traction as a vital component in species protection. Unlike traditional methods that often imposed top-down directives, community-based strategies involve local populations in the decision-making process and implementation of conservation practices. This shift acknowledges that local communities, often the most affected by environmental regulations, possess intimate knowledge and a vested interest in the natural resources surrounding them. For instance, projects like community-managed forests in Nepal have demonstrated success in increasing both forest cover and biodiversity through local stewardship.
This trend emphasizes not only ecological benefits but also socio-economic improvements for communities involved in these projects. It encourages sustainable development by aligning conservation goals with local economic interests, such as eco-tourism or sustainable harvesting practices. By empowering communities, we foster environments where people see themselves as active protectors and beneficiaries of their natural heritage rather than victims of restrictive policies.
Secondly, technological advancements are revolutionizing species protection through tools that enhance monitoring, data collection, and enforcement of regulations. Technologies such as satellite imaging and drone surveillance have expanded capabilities for tracking illegal activities like poaching or habitat destruction over vast and inaccessible areas. Moreover, developments in bioacoustics are allowing conservationists to monitor species populations through sound recordings that provide data on animal presence and behavior without intrusive tagging or direct observation that might alter their natural behavior.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is another frontier expanding rapidly within conservation circles. AI can process vast amounts of environmental data at unprecedented speeds to predict threats such as poaching hotspots or potential illegal logging sites. Additionally, machine learning algorithms are being trained to identify individual animals from camera trap images, significantly cutting down the time required for manual data analysis.
Another innovative approach includes genetic technology such as CRISPR gene editing which offers potential solutions to problems like invasive species control or even de-extinction of certain animals. While ethical debates surround some of these applications, they represent a frontier in our ability to manipulate ecological outcomes positively.
As we look forward into future directions for protected species regulations, it becomes clear that integrating these innovations requires careful consideration not only of their technological merits but also their ethical implications. The challenge lies in crafting policies that effectively incorporate new technologies while ensuring they do not inadvertently harm the ecosystems they intend to protect.
Moreover, at the heart of advancing species protection lies the need for international cooperation. Species do not recognize national borders; therefore global challenges require global solutions facilitated by international regulatory frameworks supported by scientific consensus and public-private partnerships.
In summary, the future directions for protected species regulation will likely be characterized by an increased reliance on community involvement and cutting-edge technologies. These elements promise more targeted and effective conservation strategies tailored to specific environments and needs while ensuring broad-based support from those directly impacted by these policies: local communities whose livelihoods depend profoundly on biodiversity preservation.
The International Society of Arboriculture, commonly known as ISA, is an international non-profit organization headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia,[1] United States. The ISA serves the tree care industry as a paid membership association and a credentialing organization that promotes the professional practice of arboriculture.[2] ISA focuses on providing research, technology, and education opportunities for tree care professionals to develop their arboricultural expertise. ISA also works to educate the general public about the benefits of trees and the need for proper tree care.[3][4]
Worldwide, ISA has 22,000 members and 31,000 ISA-certified tree care professionals with 59 chapters, associate organizations, and professional affiliates throughout North America, Asia, Oceania, Europe, and South America.[5]
ISA offers the following credentials:
The Certified Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have a minimum of three years' full-time experience working in the professional tree care industry and who have passed an examination covering facets of arboriculture.[6][7] The Western Chapter of the ISA started the certification program in the 1980s,[citation needed] with the ISA initiating it in 1992.[8]
The Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA) or simply Master Arborist credential identifies professional arborists who have attained the highest level of arboriculture offered by the ISA and one of the two top levels in the field. There are several paths to the Board Certified Master Arborist, but typically on average each has been an ISA Certified Arborist a minimum of three to five years before qualifying for the exam (this can vary depending upon other education and experience). The certification began as a result of the need to distinguish the top few arborists and allow others to identify those with superior credentials.
The Master Arborist examination is a far more extensive exam than the Certified Arborist Exam, and covers a broad scope of both aboriculture management, science and work practices. The exam includes the following areas:
Another credential that is on a par with the Master Arborist is that of the American Society of Consulting Arborists, the Registered Consulting Arborist.[9] There are perhaps six hundred individuals with that qualification, and only 70 arborists who hold both credentials.[citation needed]
An arborist, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture.[citation needed]
Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger.[citation needed]
In order for arborists to work near power wires, either additional training is required or they need to be certified as a Qualified Line Clearance Arborist or Utility Arborist (there may be different terminology for various countries). There is a variety of minimum distances that must be kept from power wires depending on voltage, however the common distance for low voltage lines in urban settings is 10 feet (about 3 metres).[1]
Arborists who climb (as not all do) can use a variety of techniques to ascend into the tree. The least invasive, and most popular technique used is to ascend on rope. There are two common methods of climbing, Single Rope System (SRS) and Moving Rope System (MRS). When personal safety is an issue, or the tree is being removed, arborists may use 'spikes', (also known as 'gaffs' or 'spurs') attached to their chainsaw boots with straps to ascend and work. Spikes wound the tree, leaving small holes where each step has been.[citation needed]
An arborist's work may involve very large and complex trees, or ecological communities and their abiotic components in the context of the landscape ecosystem. These may require monitoring and treatment to ensure they are healthy, safe, and suitable to property owners or community standards. This work may include some or all of the following: planting; transplanting; pruning; structural support; preventing, or diagnosing and treating phytopathology or parasitism; preventing or interrupting grazing or predation; installing lightning protection; and removing vegetation deemed as hazardous, an invasive species, a disease vector, or a weed.[citation needed]
Arborists may also plan, consult, write reports and give legal testimony. While some aspects of this work are done on the ground or in an office, much of it is done by arborists who perform tree services and who climb the trees with ropes, harnesses and other equipment. Lifts and cranes may be used too. The work of all arborists is not the same. Some may just provide a consulting service; others may perform climbing, pruning and planting: whilst others may provide a combination of all of these services.[2]
Arborists gain qualifications to practice arboriculture in a variety of ways and some arborists are more qualified than others. Experience working safely and effectively in and around trees is essential. Arborists tend to specialize in one or more disciplines of arboriculture, such as diagnosis and treatment of pests, diseases and nutritional deficiencies in trees, climbing and pruning, cabling and lightning protection, or consultation and report writing. All these disciplines are related to one another and some arborists are very well experienced in all areas of tree work, however not all arborists have the training or experience to properly practice every discipline.[citation needed]
Arborists choose to pursue formal certification, which is available in some countries and varies somewhat by location. An arborist who holds certification in one or more disciplines may be expected to participate in rigorous continuing education requirements to ensure constant improvement of skills and techniques.[citation needed]
In Australia, arboricultural education and training are streamlined countrywide through a multi-disciplinary vocational education, training, and qualification authority called the Australian Qualifications Framework, which offers varying levels of professional qualification. Government institutions including Technical and Further Education TAFE offer Certificate III or a diploma in arboriculture as well as some universities.[3][4] There are also many private institutions covering similar educational framework in each state. Recognition of prior learning is also an option for practicing arborists with 10 or more years of experience with no prior formal training. It allows them to be assessed and fast track their certification.[citation needed]
In France, a qualified arborist must hold a Management of Ornamental Trees certificate, and a qualified arborist climber must hold a Pruning and Care of Trees certificate; both delivered by the French Ministry of Agriculture.[5][6]
In the UK, an arborist can gain qualifications up to and including a master's degree. College-based courses include further education qualifications, such as national certificate, national diploma, while higher education courses in arboriculture include foundation degree, bachelor's degree and master's degree.[citation needed]
In the US, a Certified Arborist (CA) is a professional who has over three years of documented and verified experience and has passed a rigorous written test from the International Society of Arboriculture. Other designations include Municipal Specialist, Utility Specialist and Board Certified Master Arborist (BCMA). The USA and Canada additionally have college-based training which, if passed, will give the certificate of Qualified Arborist. The Qualified Arborist can then be used to offset partial experience towards the Certified Arborist.
Tree Risk Assessment Qualified credential (TRAQ), designed by the International Society of Arboriculture, was launched in 2013. At that time people holding the TRACE credential were transferred over to the TRAQ credential.[citation needed]
In Canada, there are provincially governed apprenticeship programs that allow arborists' to work near power lines upon completion. These apprenticeship programs must meet the provincial reregulations (For example, in B.C. they must meet WorkSafeBC G19.30), and individuals must ensure they meet the requirements of the owner of the power system.[citation needed]
Trees in urban landscape settings are often subject to disturbances, whether human or natural, both above and below ground. They may require care to improve their chances of survival following damage from either biotic or abiotic causes. Arborists can provide appropriate solutions, such as pruning trees for health and good structure, for aesthetic reasons, and to permit people to walk under them (a technique often referred to as "crown raising"), or to keep them away from wires, fences and buildings (a technique referred to as "crown reduction").[7] Timing and methods of treatment depend on the species of tree and the purpose of the work. To determine the best practices, a thorough knowledge of local species and environments is essential.[citation needed]
There can be a vast difference between the techniques and practices of professional arborists and those of inadequately trained tree workers. Some commonly offered "services" are considered unacceptable by modern arboricultural standards and may seriously damage, disfigure, weaken, or even kill trees. One such example is tree topping, lopping, or "hat-racking", where entire tops of trees or main stems are removed, generally by cross-cutting the main stem(s) or leaders, leaving large unsightly stubs. Trees that manage to survive such treatment are left prone to a spectrum of detrimental effects, including vigorous but weakly attached regrowth, pest susceptibility, pathogen intrusion, and internal decay.[8]
Pruning should only be done with a specific purpose in mind. Every cut is a wound, and every leaf lost is removal of photosynthetic potential. Proper pruning can be helpful in many ways, but should always be done with the minimum amount of live tissue removed.[9]
In recent years, research has proven that wound dressings such as paint, tar or other coverings are unnecessary and may harm trees. The coverings may encourage growth of decay-causing fungi. Proper pruning, by cutting through branches at the right location, can do more to limit decay than wound dressing [10]
Chemicals can be applied to trees for insect or disease control through soil application, stem injections or spraying. Compacted or disturbed soils can be improved in various ways.[citation needed]
Arborists can also assess trees to determine the health, structure, safety or feasibility within a landscape and in proximity to humans. Modern arboriculture has progressed in technology and sophistication from practices of the past. Many current practices are based on knowledge gained through recent research, including that of Alex Shigo, considered one "father" of modern arboriculture.[11]
Depending on the jurisdiction, there may be a number of legal issues surrounding the practices of arborists, including boundary issues, public safety issues, "heritage" trees of community value, and "neighbour" issues such as ownership, obstruction of views, impacts of roots crossing boundaries, nuisance problems, disease or insect quarantines, and safety of nearby trees or plants that may be affected.[citation needed]
Arborists are frequently consulted to establish the factual basis of disputes involving trees, or by private property owners seeking to avoid legal liability through the duty of care.[12] Arborists may be asked to assess the value of a tree[13] in the process of an insurance claim for trees damaged or destroyed,[14] or to recover damages resulting from tree theft or vandalism.[15] In cities with tree preservation orders an arborist's evaluation of tree hazard may be required before a property owner may remove a tree, or to assure the protection of trees in development plans and during construction operations. Carrying out work on protected trees and hedges is illegal without express permission from local authorities,[16] and can result in legal action including fines.[17] Homeowners who have entered into contracts with a Homeowner's association (see also Restrictive covenants) may need an arborists' professional opinion of a hazardous condition prior to removing a tree, or may be obligated to assure the protection of the views of neighboring properties prior to planting a tree or in the course of pruning.[18] Arborists may be consulted in forensic investigations where the evidence of a crime can be determined within the growth rings of a tree, for example. Arborists may be engaged by one member of a dispute in order to identify factual information about trees useful to that member of the dispute, or they can be engaged as an expert witness providing unbiased scientific knowledge in a court case. Homeowners associations seeking to write restrictive covenants, or legislative bodies seeking to write laws involving trees, may seek the counsel of arborists in order to avoid future difficulties.[19]
Before undertaking works in the UK, arborists have a legal responsibility to survey trees for wildlife, especially bats, which are given particular legal protection. In addition, any tree in the UK can be covered by a tree preservation order and it is illegal to conduct any work on a tree, including deadwooding or pruning, before permission has been sought from the local council.[citation needed]
The protagonist in Italo Calvino's novel The Baron in the Trees lives life on the ground as a boy and spends the rest of his life swinging from tree to tree in the Italian countryside. As a young man he helps the local fruit farmers by pruning their trees.[citation needed]
Some noteworthy arborists include:
Arboriculture (/ˈɑËÂrbÉ™rɪˌkÊŒltʃər, É‘ËÂrˈbÉâ€Ã‹Âr-/)[1] is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. The science of arboriculture studies how these plants grow and respond to cultural practices and to their environment. The practice of arboriculture includes cultural techniques such as selection, planting, training, fertilization, pest and pathogen control, pruning, shaping, and removal.
A person who practices or studies arboriculture can be termed an arborist or an arboriculturist. A tree surgeon is more typically someone who is trained in the physical maintenance and manipulation of trees and therefore more a part of the arboriculture process rather than an arborist. Risk management, legal issues, and aesthetic considerations have come to play prominent roles in the practice of arboriculture. Businesses often need to hire arboriculturists to complete "tree hazard surveys" and generally manage the trees on-site to fulfill occupational safety and health obligations.[citation needed]
Arboriculture is primarily focused on individual woody plants and trees maintained for permanent landscape and amenity purposes, usually in gardens, parks or other populated settings, by arborists, for the enjoyment, protection, and benefit of people.[citation needed]
Arboricultural matters are also considered to be within the practice of urban forestry yet the clear and separate divisions are not distinct or discreet.[citation needed]
Tree benefits are the economic, ecological, social and aesthetic use, function purpose, or services of a tree (or group of trees), in its situational context in the landscape.
A tree defect is any feature, condition, or deformity of a tree that indicates weak structure or instability that could contribute to tree failure.
Common types of tree defects:
Codominant stems: two or more stems that grow upward from a single point of origin and compete with one another.
Included bark: bark is incorporated in the joint between two limbs, creating a weak attachment
Dead, diseased, or broken branches:
Cracks
Cavity and hollows: sunken or open areas wherein a tree has suffered injury followed by decay. Further indications include: fungal fruiting structures, insect or animal nests.
Lean: a lean of more than 40% from vertical presents a risk of tree failure
Taper: change in diameter over the length of trunks branches and roots
Epicormic branches (water sprouts in canopy or suckers from root system): often grow in response to major damage or excessive pruning
Roots:
Proper tree installation ensures the long-term viability of the tree and reduces the risk of tree failure.
Quality nursery stock must be used. There must be no visible damage or sign of disease. Ideally the tree should have good crown structure. A healthy root ball should not have circling roots and new fibrous roots should be present at the soil perimeter. Girdling or circling roots should be pruned out. Excess soil above the root flare should be removed immediately, since it present a risk of disease ingress into the trunk.
Appropriate time of year to plant: generally fall or early spring in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.
Planting hole: the planting hole should be 3 times the width of the root ball. The hole should be dug deep enough that when the root ball is placed on the substrate, the root flare is 3–5cm above the surrounding soil grade. If soil is left against the trunk, it may lead to bark, cambium and wood decay. Angular sides to the planting hole will encourage roots to grow radially from the trunk, rather than circling the planting hole. In urban settings, soil preparation may include the use of:
Tree wells: a zone of mulch can be installed around the tree trunk to: limit root zone competition (from turf or weeds), reduce soil compaction, improve soil structure, conserve moisture, and keep lawn equipment at a distance. No more than 5–10cm of mulch should be used to avoid suffocating the roots. Mulch must be kept approximately 20cm from the trunk to avoid burying the root flare. With city trees additional tree well preparation includes:
Tree grates/grill and frames: limit compaction on root zone and mechanical damage to roots and trunk
Root barriers: forces roots to grow down under surface asphalt/concrete/pavers to limit infrastructure damage from roots
Staking: newly planted, immature trees should be staked for one growing season to allow for the root system to establish. Staking for longer than one season should only be considered in situations where the root system has failed to establish sufficient structural support. Guy wires can be used for larger, newly planted trees. Care must be used to avoid stem girdling from the support system ties.
Irrigation: irrigation infrastructure may be installed to ensure a regular water supply throughout the lifetime of the tree. Wicking beds are an underground reservoir from which water is wicked into soil. Watering bags may be temporarily installed around tree stakes to provide water until the root system becomes established. Permeable paving allows for water infiltration in paved urban settings, such as parks and walkways.
Within the United Kingdom trees are considered as a material consideration within the town planning system and may be conserved as amenity landscape[2] features.
The role of the Arborist or Local Government Arboricultural Officer is likely to have a great effect on such matters. Identification of trees of high quality which may have extensive longevity is a key element in the preservation of trees.
Urban and rural trees may benefit from statutory protection under the Town and Country Planning[3] system. Such protection can result in the conservation and improvement of the urban forest as well as rural settlements.
Historically the profession divides into the operational and professional areas. These might be further subdivided into the private and public sectors. The profession is broadly considered as having one trade body known as the Arboricultural Association, although the Institute of Chartered Foresters offers a route for professional recognition and chartered arboriculturist status.
The qualifications associated with the industry range from vocational to Doctorate. Arboriculture is a comparatively young industry.
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4]
Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide.
Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere,[5] and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry.
All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others.[6] Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries,[7] as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people.[6] For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area,[8] wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year.[9]
Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women.[6][quantify] Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high.[6] Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day.[6]
Over the past centuries, forestry was regarded as a separate science. With the rise of ecology and environmental science, there has been a reordering in the applied sciences. In line with this view, forestry is a primary land-use science comparable with agriculture.[10] Under these headings, the fundamentals behind the management of natural forests comes by way of natural ecology. Forests or tree plantations, those whose primary purpose is the extraction of forest products, are planned and managed to utilize a mix of ecological and agroecological principles.[11] In many regions of the world there is considerable conflict between forest practices and other societal priorities such as water quality, watershed preservation, sustainable fishing, conservation, and species preservation.[12]
Silvology (Latin: silva or sylva, "forests and woods"; Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, "science of" or "study of") is the biological science of studying forests and woodlands, incorporating the understanding of natural forest ecosystems, and the effects and development of silvicultural practices. The term complements silviculture, which deals with the art and practice of forest management.[13]
Silvology is seen as a single science for forestry and was first used by Professor Roelof A.A. Oldeman at Wageningen University.[14] It integrates the study of forests and forest ecology, dealing with single tree autecology and natural forest ecology.
Dendrology (Ancient Greek: δÃŽÂνδρον, dendron, "tree"; and Ancient Greek: -λογία, -logia, science of or study of) or xylology (Ancient Greek: ξÃÂλον, ksulon, "wood") is the science and study of woody plants (trees, shrubs, and lianas), specifically, their taxonomic classifications.[15] There is no sharp boundary between plant taxonomy and dendrology; woody plants not only belong to many different plant families, but these families may be made up of both woody and non-woody members. Some families include only a few woody species. Dendrology, as a discipline of industrial forestry, tends to focus on identification of economically useful woody plants and their taxonomic interrelationships. As an academic course of study, dendrology will include all woody plants, native and non-native, that occur in a region. A related discipline is the study of sylvics, which focuses on the autecology of genera and species.
The provenance of forest reproductive material used to plant forests has a great influence on how the trees develop, hence why it is important to use forest reproductive material of good quality and of high genetic diversity.[16] More generally, all forest management practices, including in natural regeneration systems, may impact the genetic diversity of trees.
The term genetic diversity describes the differences in DNA sequence between individuals as distinct from variation caused by environmental influences. The unique genetic composition of an individual (its genotype) will determine its performance (its phenotype) at a particular site.[17]
Genetic diversity is needed to maintain the vitality of forests and to provide resilience to pests and diseases. Genetic diversity also ensures that forest trees can survive, adapt and evolve under changing environmental conditions. Furthermore, genetic diversity is the foundation of biological diversity at species and ecosystem levels. Forest genetic resources are therefore important to consider in forest management.[16]
Genetic diversity in forests is threatened by forest fires, pests and diseases, habitat fragmentation, poor silvicultural practices and inappropriate use of forest reproductive material.
About 98 million hectares of forest were affected by fire in 2015; this was mainly in the tropical domain, where fire burned about 4 percent of the total forest area in that year. More than two-thirds of the total forest area affected was in Africa and South America. Insects, diseases and severe weather events damaged about 40 million hectares of forests in 2015, mainly in the temperate and boreal domains.[18]
Furthermore, the marginal populations of many tree species are facing new threats due to the effects of climate change.[16]
Most countries in Europe have recommendations or guidelines for selecting species and provenances that can be used in a given site or zone.[17]
Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and forest regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[19] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.
The first dedicated forestry school was established by Georg Ludwig Hartig at Hungen in the Wetterau, Hesse, in 1787, though forestry had been taught earlier in central Europe, including at the University of Giessen, in Hesse-Darmstadt.
In Spain, the first forestry school was the Forest Engineering School of Madrid (Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Montes), founded in 1844.
The first in North America, the Biltmore Forest School was established near Asheville, North Carolina, by Carl A. Schenck on September 1, 1898, on the grounds of George W. Vanderbilt's Biltmore Estate. Another early school was the New York State College of Forestry, established at Cornell University just a few weeks later, in September 1898.
Early 19th century North American foresters went to Germany to study forestry. Some early German foresters also emigrated to North America.
In South America the first forestry school was established in Brazil, in Viçosa, Minas Gerais, in 1962, and moved the next year to become a faculty at the Federal University of Paraná, in Curitiba.[34]
Today, forestry education typically includes training in general biology, ecology, botany, genetics, soil science, climatology, hydrology, economics and forest management. Education in the basics of sociology and political science is often considered an advantage. Professional skills in conflict resolution and communication are also important in training programs.[35]
In India, forestry education is imparted in the agricultural universities and in Forest Research Institutes (deemed universities). Four year degree programmes are conducted in these universities at the undergraduate level. Masters and Doctorate degrees are also available in these universities.
In the United States, postsecondary forestry education leading to a Bachelor's degree or Master's degree is accredited by the Society of American Foresters.[36]
In Canada the Canadian Institute of Forestry awards silver rings to graduates from accredited university BSc programs, as well as college and technical programs.[37]
In many European countries, training in forestry is made in accordance with requirements of the Bologna Process and the European Higher Education Area.
The International Union of Forest Research Organizations is the only international organization that coordinates forest science efforts worldwide.[38]
In order to keep up with changing demands and environmental factors, forestry education does not stop at graduation. Increasingly, forestry professionals engage in regular training to maintain and improve on their management practices. An increasingly popular tool are marteloscopes; one hectare large, rectangular forest sites where all trees are numbered, mapped and recorded.
These sites can be used to do virtual thinnings and test one's wood quality and volume estimations as well as tree microhabitats. This system is mainly suitable to regions with small-scale multi-functional forest management systems
Forestry literature is the books, journals and other publications about forestry.
The first major works about forestry in the English language included Roger Taverner's Booke of Survey (1565), John Manwood's A Brefe Collection of the Lawes of the Forrest (1592) and John Evelyn's Sylva (1662).[39]
cite book
cite journal
The Society of American Foresters grants accreditation only to specific educational curricula that lead to a first professional degree in forestry at the bachelor's or master's level.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 Key findings​, FAO, FAO.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from The State of the World's Forests 2020. Forests, biodiversity and people – In brief​, FAO & UNEP, FAO & UNEP.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​, FAO, FAO.
We recently had five large pine trees taken down in our front yard. We had three bids from different tree companies. We also wanted the stumps ground as well as chasing roots above ground. Rudy was fantastic and his workers were very skilled and the clean up was exceptional. We would highly recommend them and not hesitate to use them again.
Used Rudy and All In Tree for numerous things over the last year and a half. Pricing is Competitive. Very responsive to calls and tests. I like that they're insured. Did what he said what he was going to do and when he said he was going to do it. A couple of things didn't meet my expectations and he immediately came out and made it right. I have recommended to multiple other people.
Update! 10/10/23 After they helped me last month, All in Tree Service has again saved the day! A couple of large trees washed down the creek on my property recently and one of them was lodged against the pipes that go from my house to the street. There were other large tree trunks in the creek as well and also one wedged against the supports for my bridge. The All In team went to work and within a couple of hours had everything cleaned up and removed. The pipes and the bridge are safe! I recommend this team wholeheartedly. They care about what they do and it shows. Thank you! I’m very grateful. This team exemplifies professionalism. The before and after pictures tell a great story. September 2023 I recently was fortunate enough to find Rudy and Yaremi of All In Tree Services. A very large and very high limb on a big oak tree was hanging after a storm. It was a danger to me, to my dogs and to the fence below it. I had never met Rudy and Yaremi before. They were the first to call me back when I started my search for a reliable tree service. They clearly wanted the business so I gave them a chance. I’m so glad I did. They were very impressive! Their strategy and teamwork were incredible. Clearly they are very experienced at this kind of work. I took some pictures but I wish I had filmed the whole thing. It was amazing. They roped off the limb so it would not fall on anything or anyone. Then they quickly got the limb cut and safely on the ground and helped to clear up the debris. I am extremely happy with their service and with the friendly and professional manner with which they conducted themselves. I have already recommended them to my neighbors and I strongly encourage anyone who needs tree services to call them.
All professional service. Timely, efficient, friendly. I had big old dead trees that I feared daily were going to come down. I called them in an emergency and they came the very next morning, no problem, no excuses. The guys were about service and me as a customer. They saw what I needed and went above and beyond to make sure I was a satisfied customer. I am a satisfied customer. I will use this company again and again. Thank you Rudy.